Expandable tooling systems and methods

ABSTRACT

Methods of manufacturing composite workpieces that include adding an expandable element to an internal volume of a constraining container proximate to a uncured composite workpiece supported on a rigid form, where the expandable element is configured to expand when a predetermined change is produced in an attribute of the expandable element; expanding the expandable element by producing the predetermined change in the attribute of the expandable element, so that an expansion of the expandable element applies pressure to the workpiece supported on the rigid form within the internal volume, and curing the composite workpiece while the resulting pressure is applied to the workpiece supported on the rigid form.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application hereby incorporates by reference, for allpurposes, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/053,733, filed Aug. 2,2018 by The Boeing Company and issued as U.S. Pat. No. 11,046,027 onJun. 29, 2021.

FIELD

This disclosure relates to systems and methods for manufacturingcomposite parts. More specifically, the disclosed examples relate tocomposite part manufacture using expandable tooling.

Introduction

Engineered composite materials are used in many applications, typicallywhere the composite material can be made stronger, lighter, and/or lessexpensively than a traditional material. A variety of modern compositematerials exist, but the most common are varieties of fiber-reinforcedpolymer composites, such as fiberglass or carbon fiber composites.

For many composite materials, the manufacturing process includes curingthe fiber-reinforced matrix material, typically under elevatedtemperatures and pressures. An industrial autoclave is often used forcuring composite materials, as autoclaves permit the application of bothtemperature and pressure under controlled conditions.

Unfortunately, for processes requiring an autoclave, a bottleneck may becreated in the manufacturing process, with throughput dependent upon thecapacity of the autoclaves available, and requiring transport of eitherraw materials or preassembled but uncured components to the autoclave,and subsequent transport of the cured components from the autoclave towhere they will be utilized.

So-called “Out of Autoclave” composite manufacturing (or OOA) providesan alternative to traditional industrial curing processes typically usedfor composite manufacture. An ideal OOA curing process would achieve thesame quality of composite component as an industrial autoclave, withoutrequiring treatment within a traditional autoclave.

SUMMARY

The present disclosure provides systems, apparatus, and methods relatingto expandable tooling for curing composite structures.

In some examples, the present disclosure relates to methods ofmanufacturing a composite workpiece that include adding an expandableelement to an internal volume of the constraining container proximate toan uncured composite workpiece supported on a rigid form, where theunexpanded element is configured to expand when a predetermined changeis produced in an attribute of the unexpanded element; expanding theexpandable element by producing the predetermined change in theattribute of the unexpanded element so that an expansion of theexpandable element applies a resulting pressure to the workpiecesupported on the rigid form within the internal volume; and curing thecomposite workpiece while the resulting pressure is applied to theworkpiece supported on the rigid form.

In some examples, the present disclosure relates to methods ofmanufacturing a composite component that include adding athermally-activated expandable element to an internal volume of aconstraining container housing an uncured composite component supportedon a rigid form; expanding the thermally-activated expandable element byheating the thermally-activated expandable element to at least apredetermined temperature; and curing the composite component within theinternal volume of the constraining container while the expanded elementapplies pressure to the uncured component.

Features, functions, and advantages can be achieved independently invarious examples of the present disclosure, or can be combined in yetother examples, further details of which can be seen with reference tothe following description and drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a flowchart depicting steps of an illustrative aircraftmanufacturing and service method.

FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of an illustrative aircraft.

FIG. 3 is an isometric view of an illustrative aircraft.

FIG. 4 is a back perspective view of a portion of an illustrativeaircraft bulkhead including illustrative stiffeners.

FIG. 5 is a perspective view of a portion of an illustrative aircraftwing including stiffeners.

FIG. 6 is a perspective view of an illustrative composite aircraft hatstiffener attached to a skin.

FIG. 7 is an exploded isometric view of the stiffener and skin of FIG.6.

FIG. 8 depicts an illustrative workpiece assembly including an uncuredcomposite workpiece disposed upon a rigid form.

FIG. 9 depicts an illustrative workpiece assembly including an uncuredcomposite workpiece disposed upon a rigid form.

FIG. 10 is an illustrative functional block diagram depicting aconstraining container according to the present disclosure, enclosing anuncured composite workpiece disposed upon a rigid form, in the presenceof expandable pellets.

FIG. 11 is a cross-sectional view of the illustrative workpiece assemblyof FIG. 9 disposed within an illustrative constraining container.

FIG. 12 is a cross-sectional view of the workpiece assembly andconstraining container of FIG. 11 with the addition of an expandableelement in the form of multiple pellets.

FIG. 13 is a cross-sectional view of the workpiece assembly andconstraining container of FIG. 12 after expansion of the expandablepellets.

FIG. 14 depicts the addition of multiple volumetrically invariantadjuncts to the workpiece assembly and constraining container of FIG.12.

FIG. 15 is a cross-sectional view of the workpiece assembly andconstraining container of FIG. 14 after expansion of the expandablepellets.

FIG. 16 is a cross-sectional view of the workpiece assembly andconstraining container of FIG. 12 with the addition of an illustrativecontractible element.

FIG. 17 is a cross-sectional view of the workpiece assembly andconstraining container of FIG. 16 after expansion of the expandablepellets

FIG. 18 is a cross-sectional view of the workpiece assembly andconstraining container of FIG. 17 after the contractible element hasbeen decreased in volume.

FIG. 19 is a cross-sectional view of the workpiece assembly andconstraining container of FIG. 12 with the addition of an alternativecontractible element that includes a bladder.

FIG. 20 is a cross-sectional view of the workpiece assembly andconstraining container of FIG. 11 with the addition of an expandableelement in the form of expandable pellets retained within multiple bags.

FIG. 21 is a cross-sectional view of the workpiece assembly andconstraining container of FIG. 20 after expansion of the expandablepellets within the multiple bags.

FIG. 22 is a cross-sectional view of the workpiece assembly andconstraining container of FIG. 12 with the addition of a heat-generatingsubstance in the form of multiple packets.

FIG. 23 is a cross-sectional view of the workpiece assembly andconstraining container of FIG. 12 with the addition of a heat-generatingsubstance in the form of multiple pellets.

FIG. 24 is a flowchart depicting steps of an illustrative method formanufacturing a composite workpiece.

FIG. 25 is a flowchart depicting steps of an alternative illustrativemethod for manufacturing a composite workpiece.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Various aspects and examples of an expandable tooling system, as well asrelated methods, are described below and illustrated in the associateddrawings. Unless otherwise specified, an expandable tooling system,and/or its various components may, but are not required to, contain atleast one of the structures, components, functionalities, and/orvariations described, illustrated, and/or incorporated herein.Furthermore, unless specifically excluded, the process steps,structures, components, functionalities, and/or variations described,illustrated, and/or incorporated herein may be included in other similardevices and methods, including being interchangeable between disclosedexamples. The following description of various examples is merelyillustrative in nature and is in no way intended to limit the examples,their applications, or their uses. Additionally, the advantages providedby the examples and embodiments described below are illustrative innature and not all examples and embodiments provide the same advantagesor the same degree of advantages.

This Detailed Description includes the following sections, which followimmediately below: (1) Definitions; (2) Overview; (3) Examples,Components, and Alternatives; (4) Illustrative Combinations andAdditional Examples; (5) Advantages, Features, and Benefits; and (6)Conclusion.

Definitions

The following definitions apply herein, unless otherwise indicated.

“Substantially” means to be predominantly conforming to the particulardimension, range, shape, concept, or other aspect modified by the term,such that a feature or component need not conform exactly, so long as itis suitable for its intended purpose or function. For example, a“substantially cylindrical” object means that the object resembles acylinder, but may have one or more deviations from a true cylinder.

“Comprising,” “including,” and “having” (and conjugations thereof) areused interchangeably to mean including but not necessarily limited to,and are open-ended terms not intended to exclude additional, unrecitedelements or method steps.

Terms such as “first”, “second”, and “third” are used to distinguish oridentify various members of a group, or the like, in the order they areintroduced in a particular context and are not intended to show serialor numerical limitation, or be fixed identifiers for the group members.

“Coupled” means to be in such relation that the performance of oneinfluences the performance of the other, may include being connected,either permanently or releasably, whether directly or indirectly throughintervening components, and is not necessarily limited to physicalconnection(s).

“Expandable” means able to be expanded, or having the potential orcapability of increasing in size and/or volume. A substance or discreteelement that is expandable may be capable of increasing in size orvolume symmetrically, or asymmetrically. Where the expandable substanceis capable of symmetric expansion, the substance undergoes an asubstantially equivalent degree of expansion along each axis. Where theexpandable substance exhibits asymmetric expansion, the substance canundergo a greater relative expansion along a first axis, or first andsecond axes, than along a different axis.

Overview

In general, an expandable tooling system includes an expandable elementconfigured to apply positive pressure to a composite workpiece duringthe process of curing the workpiece. Typically, the uncured compositeworkpiece is disposed upon, or supported by, a rigid form which, inturn, is placed within an internal volume of a constraining container.The expandable element is then added to the internal volume of theconstraining container so that it is at least proximate to the uncuredcomposite workpiece, and on the opposing side from the rigid form.

Prior to and/or during the curing process, the unexpanded element iscaused to expand such that it applies pressure to the interior surfacesof the constraining container, as well as the surface of the uncuredcomposite workpiece. The expanded element typically applies the pressureresulting from the expansion of the expandable element to the compositeworkpiece during some or all of the curing process to facilitateconsolidation. After the part has been cured, the expanded element canbe removed from the constraining container prior to, simultaneouslywith, or after the cured composite workpiece is removed from theconstraining container.

By employing constraining containers that are minimally larger than theuncured composite workpiece, the amount of expandable element can beminimized. Simultaneously, the use of such constraining containers forapplying pressure to the uncured composite workpiece permits compositemanufacturing to occur without the necessity of employing an industrialautoclave.

The expandable element is typically configured to expand when apredetermined change is produced in the expandable element. Thepredetermined change is typically a change in a physical property orchemical property or any combination thereof, and/or any other suitableproperty of the expandable element that is associated with expansion ofthe expandable element. Unless otherwise specified, expansion of theexpandable element refers to an increase in the volume of the expandableelement, surface area of the expandable element, and/or spatial extentof the expandable element in one or more dimensions. For example, theexpandable element can be configured to expand when the temperature ofthe element is raised from a lower temperature, such as an ambienttemperature, to a predetermined higher temperature. Accordingly, incases in which curing the workpiece includes raising the temperature ofthe workpiece, the expandable element expands inside the internal volumeduring the curing process. The expanding or expanded element exertspressure against the interior of the constraining container as well asthe uncured composite workpiece during the curing process.

The expandable element can be selected so that upon expansion within theinterior of a constraining container, the expanding element exertssufficient pressure to effectively consolidate a composite material asit cures. For some composite materials, an applied pressure of less than1 atmosphere can be sufficient for consolidation and curing, while othercomposite materials can be more effectively cured at an applied pressureof 1 atmosphere or greater. The expandable element can be selected toexert sufficient pressure that pressures can be applied that havetypically previously required an autoclave (for example, 1-5atmospheres).

In one aspect, the curing process is simplified and facilitated byadding the expandable element as a plurality of expandable pellets,where the expandable pellets are configured to undergo volumetricexpansion when heated to at least the predetermined temperature. Theexpandable element can comprise one or more expandable pellets (alsocalled expandable beads) each configured to expand (e.g., to apredetermined volume) when heated to a predetermined temperature. Forexample, the composition of the expandable pellets can be designed toachieve a desired relationship between the volume of each expandablepellet and the temperature of the expandable pellet as a function oftime.

The extent of the expansion of a given expandable pellet composition canbe measured and recorded, as can the forces generated by the expansion.The formulation of the pellet composition can therefore be varied inorder to obtain a desired degree of expansion and expansion force. Inthis way, the number and composition of expandable pellets employed canbe selected such that the expansion of the plurality of expandablepellets within the known volume will apply a desired pressure upon theuncured composite workpiece at one or more stages of the curing process.After the composite workpiece has been cured, the expanded pellets canbe easily removed from the constraining container.

The disclosed systems and methods are useful for a variety of compositematerials, used in manufacturing desired components for any suitableindustrial application. The presently described systems and methods areparticularly useful for out-of-autoclave manufacturing of composites,such as may be desirable at a large or a remote worksite. The presentlydescribed systems and methods are additionally useful for themanufacture of components having a unique or awkward shape that may notreadily be processed in an industrial autoclave.

Composite stiffeners or stringers, for example, are typically applied tofuselage sections and wing skins, in order to confer stiffness andstrength to the aircraft panels to which they are attached whileeconomizing on weight. For strength and rigidity, a stiffener mayexhibit a concave cross-section with projecting extensions. Thestiffener may additionally incorporate an overall curvature in order tomatch the curve of the fuselage to which it will be attached. Yetfurther, the stiffener may include one or more bends, or joggles, inorder to accommodate one or more aircraft systems. Due to theseconstraints, the resulting stiffener may have a size and shape thatmakes it difficult to transport to and from an industrial autoclave, ormay even prevent the autoclave from accommodating the uncured stiffener.

However, such a composite stiffener can be readily accommodated by aconstraining container specifically sized and shaped for that stiffener,and the uncured composite stiffener can be disposed upon a rigid formconstructed so as to define and incorporate the desired cross-sectionalprofile, the desired curvature, and the desired joggles in thestiffener. The composite stiffener can then readily be cured whiledisposed upon the rigid form while the requisite pressure is applied tothe composite by a suitable expandable element.

Examples, Components, and Alternatives

The following sections describe selected aspects of exemplary removableexpandable tooling, as well as related systems and/or methods. Theexamples in these sections are intended for illustration and should notbe interpreted as limiting the entire scope of the present disclosure.Each section can include one or more distinct embodiments or examples,and/or contextual or related information, function, and/or structure.

A. Illustrative Applications and Associated Methods

The presently disclosed systems and methods may be used in any suitableindustry, for the manufacture of any desired composite material.Although the examples provided herein are described in the context ofaircraft manufacturing and service, these are merely illustrativeexamples, and should not be considered limiting the applicability of thedisclosed systems and methods in any way.

FIGS. 1-3 depict an illustrative aircraft manufacturing and servicemethod 100 and an illustrative aircraft 120. Method 100 includes aplurality of processes, stages, or phases. During pre-production, method100 can include a specification and design phase 104 of aircraft 120 anda material procurement phase 106. During production, a component andsubassembly manufacturing phase 108 and a system integration phase 110of aircraft 120 can take place. Thereafter, aircraft 120 can go througha certification and delivery phase 112 to be placed into in-servicephase 114. While in service (e.g., by an operator), aircraft 120 can bescheduled for routine maintenance and service 116 (which can alsoinclude modification, reconfiguration, refurbishment, and so on of oneor more systems of aircraft 120). While the examples described hereinrelate generally to component and subassembly manufacturing phase 108 ofaircraft 120, they can be practiced at other stages of method 100.

Each of the processes of method 100 can be performed or carried out by asystem integrator, a third party, and/or an operator (e.g., a customer).For the purposes of this description, a system integrator can include,without limitation, any number of aircraft manufacturers andmajor-system subcontractors; a third party can include, withoutlimitation, any number of vendors, subcontractors, and suppliers; and anoperator can be an airline, leasing company, military entity, serviceorganization, and so on.

As shown in FIGS. 2-3, aircraft 120 produced by illustrative method 100can include a frame 122 with a plurality of systems 124 and an interior126. Examples of plurality of systems 124 include one or more of apropulsion system 128, an electrical system 130, a hydraulic system 132,an environmental system 134, a cargo system 136, and a landing system138. Each system can comprise various subsystems, such as controllers,processors, actuators, effectors, motors, generators, etc., depending onthe functionality involved. Any number of other systems can be included.Although an aerospace example is shown, the principles disclosed hereincan be applied to other industries, such as the automotive industry,rail transport industry, and nautical transport industry. Accordingly,in addition to aircraft 120, the principles disclosed herein can applyto other structures, such as other vehicles, e.g., land vehicles, marinevehicles, etc.

Apparatuses and methods shown or described herein can be employed duringany one or more of the stages of the manufacturing and service method100. For example, components or subassemblies corresponding to componentand subassembly manufacturing phase 108 can be fabricated ormanufactured in a manner suitable for components or subassemblies usedwhile aircraft 120 is operating during in-service phase 114. Also, oneor more examples of the apparatuses, methods, or combinations thereofcan be utilized during production stages 108 and 110, for example, bysubstantially expediting assembly of or reducing the cost to manufactureor use aircraft 120. Similarly, one or more examples of the apparatus ormethod realizations, or a combination thereof, can be utilized, forexample and without limitation, during maintenance and service phase116.

Any component or substructure of an aircraft that lends itself tocomposite manufacture can be compatible with the illustrative methodsand processes described herein, including without limitation structuralcomponents, fuselage panels, bulkhead sections, and the like. In oneaspect, the presently described methods are particularly useful for themanufacture of stiffeners, or stringers, used in aircraft manufacture.

As shown in FIGS. 3-5, an aircraft 120 can include one or morestiffeners 150 configured to carry loads. In some examples, stiffeners150 are attached to skins 155 to improve the strength, stiffness, and/orbuckling resistance of the skins. Stiffeners 150 can be included in anysuitable part of aircraft frame 122 and/or any other suitable part ofaircraft 120. FIGS. 3-4 depict stiffeners 150 reinforcing skin 155 in anillustrative aircraft bulkhead 160. FIG. 5 depicts stiffeners 150reinforcing skin 155 in an illustrative aircraft wing 165.

B. Illustrative Aircraft Stiffener

This section describes illustrative hat stiffener 180, as shown in FIGS.6-7. Hat stiffener 180 is an example of stiffener 150, described above.

As depicted in FIG. 6, hat stiffener 180 includes a cap section 182 andfirst and second sidewalls 184 and 186 extending from opposing sideportions of the cap section. In the example depicted in FIG. 6, firstand second sidewalls 184 and 186 extend from cap section 182 at obtuseangles; in other examples, first and second sidewalls 184 and 186 canform acute angles or substantially right angles with cap section 182.The angle between cap section 182 and first sidewall 184 may or may notbe equal to the angle between cap section 182 and second sidewall 186.Cap section 182 can be substantially planar, as depicted in FIG. 6, orcan include curved and/or angled portions.

Hat stiffener 180 further includes first flange 188 extending from firstsidewall 184, and second flange 190 extending from second sidewall 186.First and second flanges 188 and 190 extend away from each other inopposing directions and can be parallel to cap section 182 (e.g., thefirst and second flanges can be coplanar and can define a plane that isparallel to a plane generally defined by the cap section). First andsecond flanges 188 and 190 have respective bottom surfaces that can beattached to skin 155 so that hat stiffener 180 is configured toreinforce, stiffen, and strengthen the skin. A plurality of hatstiffeners 180 can be attached to an expanse of skin 155.

Hat stiffener 180 is a composite part comprising one or more compositelayers (also called plies) that are adhered together by curing (e.g., byapplication of heat and/or pressure). Skin 155 can also be a compositepart comprising one or more composite layers. FIG. 7 is an exploded viewdepicting illustrative composite stiffener layers 195 a, 195 b, and 195c of hat stiffener 180 and illustrative composite skin layers 197 a, 197b, and 197 c of skin 155. Alternatively, hat stiffener 180 and/or skin155 can comprise more composite layers, or fewer composite layers, thanare depicted in FIG. 7. Hat stiffener 180 can be attached to skin 155 bycuring the stiffener and the skin while they are held together, or bycuring the stiffener and the skin separately and then fastening thestiffener to the skin. Hat stiffener 180 and skin 155 can each compriseone or more polymer materials, thermoplastic materials, thermosettingmaterials, and/or any other suitable materials depending on the desiredproperties for the finished workpiece.

FIG. 8 schematically depicts an assembly 200 that includes an uncuredcomposite workpiece 202 corresponding to an aircraft stiffener, wherethe uncured composite workpiece 202 is disposed upon anappropriately-shaped rigid form 204. In this example the upper surface206 of rigid form 204 defines the desired cross-sectional profile of thedesired final stiffener, including extensions 208 and 210 to supportwhat will become first flange 188 and second flange 190, respectively.Although rigid form 204 defines a concave shell, any configuration ofrigid form having a suitable upper surface upon which the shape of thedesired composite workpiece can be formed is an appropriateconfiguration. For example as shown for assembly 212 of FIG. 9, rigidform 214 can include a solid form, rather than a concave shell.

Rigid form 214 can be substantially resistant to compression, at leastwhen pressure is applied on upper surface 206 of the rigid form, whichcontacts an undersurface 216 of uncured composite workpiece 202. In thisway pressure applied to the outer surface 228 of uncured compositeworkpiece 202 acts cooperatively with rigid form 204, 214 to generatecompressive force upon workpiece 202.

Rigid form 214 can perform the function of a conventional caul plate, orcan be used in conjunction with a conventional caul plate.

C. Expandable Tooling System Overview

FIG. 10 depicts a functional block diagram illustrating a constrainingcontainer 220 that encloses a workpiece assembly 212 that includes anuncured composite workpiece 205 disposed upon a rigid form 214, and thatis optionally covered by a barrier film 234. Constraining container 220also includes expandable pellets 232 that are configured to expand whena predetermined change is produced in an attribute of the expandablepellets and to thereby exert pressure upon workpiece assembly 212, andso upon uncured composite workpiece 205.

Constraining container 220 can optionally further include one or moreadditional elements selected to facilitate or modify the curing processof workpiece 205, such as one or more bags 251 that can encloseexpandable pellets 232 to form one or more bag assemblies 252, therebyfacilitate handling of expandable pellets 232, as well as the removal ofexpanded pellets after curing is complete.

Additional elements that may modify or moderate the pressures applied byexpandable pellets 232 can include one or more volumetrically invariant(i.e. substantially noncompressible) adjuncts 240, and/or one or morecontractible elements 242 (optionally include a fluid-filled bladder244), which can be reduced in volume after curing to facilitate accessto workpiece assembly 212.

Where expandable pellets 232 are thermally-expandable pellets,constraining container 220 can be heated externally. Alternatively or inaddition, constraining container 220 can include one or moreheat-generating substances 254 configured to heat expandable pellets 232to a predetermined temperature at which the pellets will expand.

One or more of the optional additional elements shown in FIG. 10 may bepresent in constraining container 220, without limitation, and in anycombination, as will be discussed in greater detail below.

D. Expandable Element

FIGS. 11-13 semi-schematically depict the components shown in the blockdiagram of FIG. 10. FIG. 11 schematically depicts workpiece assembly 212of FIG. 9, including uncured composite workpiece 202 disposed upon rigidform 214. Assembly 212 is disposed within an exemplary constrainingcontainer 220, where container 220 is constructed so as to facilitatethe application of pressure upon uncured composite workpiece 205 by theexpansion of an expandable element. Constraining container 220 isconfigured to enclose assembly 212, so that container walls 222 define avolume 224 within the constraining container and intermediate the innersurfaces 226 of container walls 222 and the outer surface 228 of uncuredcomposite workpiece 205. The addition of an expandable element tocontainer volume 224, in an amount sufficient to make contact with bothuncured composite workpiece 205 and inner surfaces 226 permits thegeneration and application of pressure upon surface 228 of workpiece 205when the expandable element is expanded.

Constraining container 220 is typically constructed so that the additionof workpiece assembly 212 and subsequent addition of expandable element218 is facilitated, as well as removal of the expanded element andworkpiece after curing is completed. Container 220 can incorporate aremovable upper surface, or lid, or feature one or more removable panelsto provide access to the interior of the container. Any type of sealableopening is an appropriate opening, provided that when it is sealed, thecontainer can withstand the pressure generated within the container.

In one aspect, constraining container 220 can be prepared using avariety of a cement, a plaster, or a concrete. The creation ofinexpensive molded containers using cement, plaster, or concrete canhelp reduce the cost of composite manufacture, as the materials used forsuch containers can be inexpensive, and would not require sophisticatedtooling to prepare. Alternatively, constraining container 220 caninclude multiple parts, such as a base, walls, and cover, and themultiple parts of container 220 are assembled and/or clamped together toform constraining container 220.

Alternatively, constraining container 220 can be comprised of multipleparts, such that when disassembled, enhanced access is provided to rigidform 214, for example to assist in the layup of uncured compositeworkpiece 205. Upon assembly of workpiece 205, constraining container220 can be partially or fully assembled. In one aspect, constrainingcontainer 220 is partially assembled, and only fully assembled after theaddition of expandable element 218. Alternatively, or in addition,constraining container 220 can be configured so that it can beconveniently used to effect repair of composite materials in the field.

In order for appropriate compressive forces to be applied to uncuredcomposite workpiece 205 while it is within constraining container 220,rigid form 214 can be well-supported either by a substantiallynon-compressible surface, or alternatively, by another source ofcompressive force to be applied against the underside of rigid form 214.As shown in FIG. 11, it can be sufficient for rigid form 214 to besupported by the lower wall of container 220, or to be supported by asubstantially noncompressible floor 230. Alternatively, the assembly ofworkpiece and rigid form can be disposed on a layer of an expandableelement, as well as proximate to the workpiece, so as to effectivelyapply pressure from expanding the expandable element on all sides of theworkpiece and form. In yet another aspect, rigid form 214 can beincorporated into the structure of container 220 itself. That is, rigidform 214 can be a portion of, or an extension of, a lower surface ofcontainer 220, for example.

Expandable element 218 can take any suitable form, without limitation.The expandable element can be added to constraining container 220, forexample, as a powder or a foam. Alternatively, or in addition, theexpandable element can be added to container 220 as discrete portions ofa solid or semi-solid, such as layers of an expandable element which canbe draped across assembly 212, or as smaller portions such as pellets,or beads. Where expandable element 218 is used in the form of smallersolid or semi-solid portions, expandable element 218 can be added tocontainer 220 by adding individual sacks or bags of pellets, beads, orother smaller portions. Although FIGS. 12-13 depict the expandableelement as a plurality of pellets 232, this is a representativedepiction and should not be considered in any way limiting.

In one aspect, the curing process of the composite workpiece furtherincludes applying a removable barrier film 234 to an outer surface ofthe uncured composite workpiece before adding expandable element 218 tointernal volume 224 of constraining container 220. In this aspect,selected chemical and/or physical interactions between expandableelement 218 and workpiece 205 can be minimized and/or eliminated by thepresence of barrier film 234, which is shown in FIG. 11. Barrier film234 can be selected to be resistant to heat, and to be readily removableafter workpiece 205 is cured. Appropriate materials for barrier film 234can include silicon-based films, polymer-based films, and/or fluorinatedpolymer-based films.

In one aspect, barrier film 234 is incorporated into a vacuum bag thatcontains workpiece 205. In this aspect barrier film 234 may be used toreduce the porosity of the surface of workpiece 205, and additionally oralternatively may be used to further consolidate workpiece 205 duringcuring by evacuating the vacuum bag while expandable element 218 isapplying pressure to the workpiece.

Typically, expandable element 218 is added to an internal volume 224 ofconstraining container 220 while the expandable element is in anunexpanded state, as shown in FIG. 12. Prior to and/or during the curingprocess, expandable element 218 is made to expand (e.g., to increase involume) to at least partially fill volume 224, such that the expandedexpandable element applies positive pressure directly or indirectly toat least some inner surfaces 226 of constraining container 220 as wellas the upper and outer surface of uncured workpiece 205. The pressureexerted by element 218 as it expands thereby helps to compress andconsolidate workpiece 205 as it is cured.

Expandable element 218 can be configured to expand (e.g., to apredetermined volume and/or pressure) when a predetermined change isproduced in an attribute of the unexpanded element. Typically,expandable element 218 is inserted into container volume 224 in anunexpanded state, the predetermined change is produced in the attributeof the unexpanded element while the unexpanded element is within volume224, and the unexpanded element expands in response to the producedpredetermined change. The attribute of expandable element 218 can be aphysical and/or chemical attribute.

In one aspect, the expandable element 218 can be configured to expand involume when it interacts with water. For example, where the expandableelement 218 is or includes a desiccant, the desiccant can increase involume as water is absorbed. For example, anhydrous calcium sulfate(anhydrite) can exhibit an increase in volume of 61% when it absorbswater to form gypsum.

Water can be added to expandable element 218 directly, such as by addingliquid water or water vapor to the interior of constraining container220. Alternatively, or in addition, water or water vapor can begenerated within container 220 itself, for example by an appropriatechemical reaction.

In one aspect, the predetermined change in an attribute of theunexpanded element includes a change in the temperature of expandableelement 218 and/or the temperature of one or more portions of theexpandable element. Accordingly, producing the predetermined change inthe attribute of expandable element 218 can include raising thetemperature of the unexpanded expandable element from a lowertemperature, such as an ambient temperature (e.g., room temperature), toat least a predetermined temperature greater than the initial or ambienttemperature (e.g., the predetermined temperature is a number of degreesabove the ambient temperature suitable to produce a predeterminedexpansion of the expandable element). The expandable element thenundergoes thermal expansion as a result of the increase in temperature.

In this aspect, the curing process can include adding athermally-activated expandable element to the internal volume 224 of theconstraining container 220, where the thermally-activated expandableelement is configured to expand when the temperature of the element israised to at least a predetermined temperature.

Alternatively, or in addition, expanding the thermally-activatedexpandable element by heating the thermally-activated expandable elementto at least a predetermined temperature can include producing apredetermined pressure against the uncured composite workpiece when thethermally-activated expandable element is heated to at least thepredetermined temperature. Typically, the predetermined pressure is apressure sufficient to adequately cure the composite material.

The predetermined change produced in the attribute of the unexpandedelement can be a combination of two or more properties of expandableelement 218, such as a ratio or a product of quantitative valuesassociated with properties of the expandable element, such as twomaterials that have different coefficients of thermal expansion.

The process of curing workpiece 205 can include producing thepredetermined change in the attribute of expandable element 218.Therefore, the expansion of expandable element 218 can occurautomatically during the curing process. For example, the attribute canbe a temperature of expandable element 218, and heat applied to assembly212 during the curing process can produce the predetermined change inthe temperature of the expandable element. That is, heat applied toassembly 212 during the curing process can raise the temperature ofexpandable element 218 to at least a predetermined temperatureassociated with a desired volume and/or desired increase in volume. Oneor more properties of expandable element 218 can be designed such thatthe temperature change induced in the expandable element during thecuring of workpiece 205 causes the expandable element to expand adesired predetermined amount as a result of thermal expansion.Alternatively, or additionally, causing expandable element 218 to expandcan require additional steps beyond those required to cure workpiece205. For example, causing expandable element 218 to expand can includeapplying an electric field, injecting a liquid, gas, and/or anothersuitable material, and/or inducing any other suitable change in theexpandable element.

As mentioned, expandable element 218 can have the form of a plurality ofpellets 232. In one aspect, pellets 232 can include foamable pelletsconfigured to foam when heated to at least a predetermined foamingtemperature. Pellets 232 can include a foamable material, e.g., athermoplastic material treated with a blowing agent; a gas-filledballoon; hollow microspheres, a metal; any other suitable componentconfigured to expand when heated, or any combination thereof.

Thermally-expandable pellets 232 can comprise any material capable ofundergoing expansion when the predetermined foaming temperature isreached. In particular, a family of plastic polymers capable ofsoftening when heated are called thermoplastic materials. When heatedabove its glass transition temperature and below its melting point, asolid thermoplastic material softens, becoming a viscous liquid. In thisstate, thermoplastics can be reshaped, and more specifically, can beexpanded.

A variety of classes of thermoplastic materials are known, includingacrylic polymers, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) polymers, nylonpolymers, polylactic acid (PLA) polymers, polybenzimidazole polymers,polycarbonate polymers, polyether sulfone (PES) polymers, polyetherimide(PEI) polymers, polyethylene (PE) polymers, polyphenylene oxide (PPO)polymers, polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) polymers, polyvinyl chloride (PVC)polymers, polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) polymers, andpolytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) polymers, among others. In particular,expandable pellets 232 that include acrylonitrile butadiene styrene(ABS) polymers can exhibit favorable physical properties when used inconjunction with the systems described herein.

Expandable pellets 232 can additionally include a blowing agent.Typically, a blowing agent is selected so that, when heated to at leasta predetermined temperature, it forms a plurality of holes, pockets, orvoids within the material of the expandable element, such that thevolume of the pellet increases. For example, an appropriate blowingagent can be an inert gas that is permeated into the expandable elementunder pressure. Such a blowing agent can be configured to expand in aplurality of locations within pellets 232 when the temperature of thepellet is increased from an ambient or initial temperature to apredetermined higher temperature, and the expanded gas forms holes,pockets, or voids within the pellet. A blowing agent, if present, can beapplied to the expandable element prior to heating.

the blowing agent can be, for example, a gas or liquid, such as carbondioxide, nitrogen, one or more hydrocarbons, water, and/or any othersuitable physical and/or chemical blowing agent. The blowing agent canbe introduced to pellets 232 under pressure when the blowing agent is agas, so that the gas diffuses into the pellet to render it foamable.Alternatively, or additionally, the blowing agent can comprise one ormore expandable gas-filled microspheres that are embedded in the pelletwhen it is initially formed. Suitable microspheres can includeexpandable thermoplastic microspheres sold by AkzoNobel, Inc. ofChicago, Ill. under the proprietary name EXPANCEL.

Where expandable pellets 232 include a blowing agent, the blowing agentcan be any appropriate substance capable of producing the desired degreeof expansion of the resulting pellets. The blowing agent may include aphysical blowing agent such as a chlorofluorocarbon, ahydrochlorofluorocarbon, a hydrocarbon, or liquid CO₂, among others.Alternatively or in addition, the blowing agent may include a chemicalblowing agent selected to react with one or more components of theexpandable pellets, such as isocyanate and water for polyurethane,azodicarbonamide for vinyl, hydrazine and other nitrogen-based materialsfor thermoplastic and elastomeric foams, and sodium bicarbonate forthermoplastic foams, among others.

Where the expandable pellets include a blowing agent, the blowing agentcan include a foaming agent. Whereas the blowing agent can be selectedto form a gas, the foaming agent can be a material that facilitatesformation of a foam, such as for example, a surfactant. Suitable foamingagents can include sodium laureth sulfate, sodium lauryl ether sulfate(SLES), sodium lauryl sulfate (also known as sodium dodecyl sulfate orSDS), and ammonium lauryl sulfate (ALS), among others.

A suitable number of pellets 232 of expandable element 218 to be placedwithin volume 224 of constraining container 220 can include any numberof pellets, provided that when expanded they are able to apply apositive pressure to the surface of uncured workpiece 205 sufficient toconsolidate and shape the desired workpiece during curing, and thatnumber is dependent upon the size of volume 224. That is, where theconstraining container 220 fits more closely around the contours ofassembly 212, fewer pellets 232 may be needed.

The number of expandable pellets 232 needed within volume 224 can, forexample, be between 10 and 100 pellets, or between 100 and 500 pellets,or between 500 and 1000 pellets, or greater than 1000 pellets, dependingon the application and workpiece assembly. Typically, a length of eachexpandable pellet 232 is less than one centimeter. Expandable pellets232 can be substantially uniform in size, or can include pellets ofdifferent sizes.

During the process of curing uncured workpiece 205, expandable pellets232 are made to expand from an unexpanded state to an expanded state. Asdescribed above, expandable pellets 232 can be configured to expand inresponse to heat applied to assembly 212 during curing. Expandablepellets 232 expand to at least partially fill volume 224, such that theexpanded expandable pellets apply positive pressure to uncured workpiece205 as it is disposed upon rigid form 214 and the workpiece is cured.FIG. 12 depicts expandable pellets 232 within volume 224 prior toexpansion, while FIG. 13 depicts expanded pellets 236 within volume 224after expansion.

Expandable pellets 232 can be formulated so that they are at leastpartially deformable after, during, and/or before expansion. A degree ofdeformability allows expandable pellets 232 to squeeze into small gapsthat might otherwise exist between pellets, between pellets and innersurfaces 226, and/or between pellets and upper surface 228 of uncuredworkpiece 205. Filling these gaps allows the ensemble of expandablepellets 232 to present a substantially smooth surface to workpiece 205.

After workpiece 205 has been cured, constraining container 220 can beunsealed and/or opened as needed, and partially or fully expandedpellets 236 can be removed from volume 224. Although expanded pellets236 are typically readily removed from constraining container 220 afterworkpiece 205 has been cured, in some examples expanded pellets 236 canremain expanded and tightly packed together after workpiece 205 has beencured and cooled, which may tend to impede their removal from container220. Expandable pellets 232 can therefore be additionally configured inone or more ways to be more easily separated from workpiece 205, rigidform 214, and/or inner surfaces 226 of container 220.

For example, expandable pellets 232 can be configured so that the shapeand/or size of the corresponding expanded pellets 236 can be changedwhen desired, so that they can be more readily extracted. For example,expandable pellets 232 can be configured to shrink when cooled, so thatafter workpiece 205 is cured and cooled, the pellets shrink in volume,thereby facilitating their removal from the container.

In another aspect, the expandable pellets 232 can be modified so as tominimize sintering (self-adhesion) upon heating and expansion.Alternatively, or in addition, expandable element 218 can be configuredto minimize potential adhesion with the surfaces of the container andworkpiece assembly, such as by coating pellets 232 with a suitable agentconfigured prevent adhesion of pellets to one another, and/or tofacilitate separation of expanded pellets 236 from each other and/orfrom container 220 after heating.

In one aspect, a suitable agent for adding to expandable pellets 232 caninclude a lubricating agent, such that adding a lubricating agent to theexpandable pellets decreases adhesion between pellets before and/orafter volumetric expansion of the expandable pellets. A suitablelubricating agent is one that does not interfere with curing ofworkpiece 205, and prevents expanded pellets 236 from substantiallyadhering to one another, to the container, or to the components of theworkpiece assembly. Suitable lubricating agents can include liquids,powders, or combinations thereof. When added as a powder, a suitablelubricating agent can comprise a nano-powder. Alternatively, or inaddition, suitable lubricating agents can include silicon-basedmaterials, fluorinated polymers, or other substantially inertsubstances. For example, a suitable lubricating agent can includepolytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) powder, PTFE nano-powder, silicone,perfluoropolyether (PFPE), perfluoroalkylether (PFAE),perfluoropolyalkylether (PFPAE), and/or the like. Such a lubricant canbe applied to expandable pellets 232 before the expandable pellets areinserted into constraining container 220. Alternatively, oradditionally, a suitable lubricant can be applied to expandable pellets232 while they are disposed inside container 220. Coating at least someof expandable pellets 232 with a suitable lubricant can include mixingthe lubricant with the plurality of pellets and/or pouring the lubricantover the plurality of pellets. Additionally, or alternatively, at leasta subset of the plurality of expandable pellets 232 can be coated with adesired lubricant and then mixed in with a plurality of uncoatedpellets.

Crystallinity and/or semi-crystallinity along the outer surfaces ofexpandable pellets 232 can help to prevent the pellets from sintering toeach other. In one aspect, therefore, at least some of expandablepellets 232 can be configured, such as by preprocessing, to have regionsof crystallinity along outer surfaces of the pellets, such that addingthe thermally-activated expandable element includes adding a pluralityof expandable pellets having surface regions of increased crystallinityin order to decrease adhesion between pellets before and/or aftervolumetric expansion of the expandable pellets.

Expandable pellets 232 can therefore be employed where outer surfaces ofthe pellets exhibit a high degree of crystallinity (e.g., a highpercentage of the volume of regions of each pellet near the outersurface is crystalline). The crystallinity can be induced in expandablepellets 232 by controlling one or more factors including the materialcomposition of the pellets, the production temperatures to which thepellets are heated during production, the times for which the pellettemperatures are maintained at the production temperatures duringproduction, electric and/or magnetic fields applied during production,distribution of a blowing agent in the pellets, composition and/orconcentration of blowing agent, and so on. The outer surfaces of pellets232 can be crystalline before foaming, during foaming, and/or afterfoaming.

E. Illustrative Additional Elements and Associated Systems

1. Volumetrically Invariant Adjuncts

In some aspects, it may be advantageous to add one or more additionalelements to the constraining container 220 with the workpiece assembly212 and expandable pellets 232. For example, both the application ofappropriate pressure to the workpiece as well as extraction of used andexpanded pellets can be improved by the addition of one or morevolumetrically invariant adjuncts 240. In this aspect, the curingprocess can include inserting a plurality of volumetrically invariantadjuncts into the internal volume 224 of the constraining container 220with the expandable element 218.

As used herein, a volumetrically invariant adjunct is one that does notexpand, or expands only minimally, when heated to the predeterminedtemperature at which expandable pellets undergo expansion. Thevolumetric invariance of a given substance can be quantified withreference to the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of thesubstance. A substance with a higher CTE can be expected to expand to agreater degree than a substance having a lower CTE. The volumetricinvariance of two substances can therefore be directly compared bycomparing their respective CTE values.

For example, an adjunct composed of a steel alloys can be expected toundergo only minimal expansion during heating, as steel alloys have CTEvalues of 6.3-7.3×10⁻⁶ inch/inch·F. The use of borosilicate glass conoffer an adjunct that undergoes even less expansion, as borosilicateglass has a CTE of 2.2×10⁻⁶ inch/inch·F. Aluminum metal, on the otherhand, can undergo relatively greater expansion, having a CTE of1.2-1.3×10⁻⁵ inch/inch·F.

A volumetrically-invariant adjunct 240 is an adjunct that is selected tomaintain substantially the same volume throughout the range of pressuresexpected to be generated within constraining container 220 during thecuring process. In addition to being selected to exhibit no or onlyminimal expansion during heating, an appropriatevolumetrically-invariant adjunct can be selected to be substantiallynoncompressible under the applied pressures expected to be generatedwithin constraining container 220.

The addition of a one or more volumetrically invariant adjuncts 240 maypermit the application of a desired pressure for curing workpiece 205while using fewer expandable pellets 232, because as pellets 232 expand,the volumetrically invariant adjuncts will transfer any unbalancedpressures from one side of the adjunct to the other, with virtually noloss of pressure. In this way, fewer expandable pellets 232 can besufficient to cure a desired workpiece. Additionally, volumetricallyinvariant adjunct 240 can be reusable, representing a further increasedsaving in materials used during the curing process.

Typically, volumetrically invariant adjunct can have a volume that isapproximately the same size as a single expandable pellet 232.Alternatively the volumetrically invariant adjunct 240 can have a volumelarger than a single expandable pellet 232. Volumetrically invariantadjunct 240 can have a volume between five times and ten times largerthan a volume of one of expandable pellets 232, or a volume between tentimes and twenty times larger than a volume of one of the pellets, or avolume more than twenty times larger than a volume of one of thepellets.

Volumetrically invariant adjuncts 240 can include any material that isinsensitive to the conductions likely to occur with constrainingcontainer 220. For example, volumetrically invariant adjuncts 240 caninclude a glass, a ceramic, or a metal, or a combination thereof.Volumetrically invariant adjunct(s) 240 can be spherical, cylindrical,or any other shape suitable for addition to and removal fromconstraining container 220. In one aspect volumetrically invariantadjuncts 240 can include solid beads, spheres, or rods. In anotheraspect, volumetrically invariant adjuncts 240 can include hollow beads,spheres, or rods.

In one aspect, the curing process includes inserting a plurality ofvolumetrically invariant adjuncts into internal volume 224 of theconstraining container 220 with expandable element 218, where theplurality of volumetrically invariant adjuncts include beads or rods.

As shown schematically in FIG. 14, prior to curing workpiece assembly200, volumetrically invariant adjuncts 240 and unexpanded expandablepellets 232 are inserted into volume 224 of constraining container 220.The position of volumetrically invariant adjuncts 240 within volume 224can be selected so that some expandable pellets 232 are disposed betweenany volumetrically invariant adjunct and upper surface 228 of workpiece205 during curing, as if a substantially noncompressible volumetricallyinvariant adjunct were instead pushed against portions of workpiece 205during curing, the volumetrically invariant adjunct can undesirablydeform workpiece 205. Volumetrically invariant adjuncts 240 can provideadditional surfaces for expandable pellets 232 to push against as theyexpand, which can benefit the distribution of pressure throughout volume224 (e.g., by making the pressure distribution more uniform throughoutthe volume, and/or within selected portions of the volume).

FIG. 15 schematically depicts workpiece assembly 212 after curing andprior to removal of expanded pellets 236, with pellets 236 havingexpanded to push against the volumetrically invariant adjuncts 240,inner surfaces 226 of container 220, and the outer/upper surfaces ofworkpiece 205. During and/or prior to curing of workpiece 205, thepresence of volumetrically invariant adjuncts 240 can help pushexpandable pellets 232 into edge portions, corners, crevices, pockets,and/or narrow portions of volume 224.

2. Contractible Elements

Alternatively, or in addition, the addition of a contractible element242 to the interior of constraining container 220 along with expandablepellets 232 can provide additional and advantageous results. In thisaspect, the curing process can include inserting a contractible elementinto the internal volume 224 of constraining container 220 with theexpandable element, where the contractible element can be configured tovolumetrically contract when a predetermined change is produced in anattribute of the contractible element. Although depicted schematicallyas spheres or cylinders in FIGS. 16 and 17, a suitable contractibleelement may have any shape, size or geometry that facilitates themanipulation of the contractible element (i.e., handling, shipping, andadding the contractible element to constraining container 220).

Typically, contractible element 242 can be configured to shrink whencooled from a heated curing temperature (e.g., a temperature achievedduring curing of workpiece 205) to an ambient temperature, or atemperature otherwise lower compared to curing temperatures.Contractible element 242 can be larger in volume than a single one ofexpandable pellets 232. For example, contractible element 242 can have avolume between five times and ten times larger than a volume of one ofexpandable pellets 232, or a volume between ten times and twenty timeslarger than a volume of one of the pellets, or a volume more than twentytimes larger than a volume of one of the pellets.

As shown schematically in FIG. 16, prior to curing workpiece 205,contractible element 242 and unexpanded expandable pellets 232 areinserted into volume 224. The position of contractible element 242within volume 224 can be selected so that some expandable pellets 232are disposed between each contractible element and the upper/outersurface of workpiece 205 during curing of the workpiece. If contractibleelement 242 were instead pushed against portions of workpiece 205 duringcuring, the contractible element can undesirably deform the workpieceunless it is configured to conform to the walls of container 220 whenexpanded. Contractible element 242 can provide a surface for expandablepellets 232 to push against as they expand, which can benefit thedistribution of pressure throughout volume 224 (e.g., by making thepressure distribution more uniform throughout the volume, and/or withinselected portions of the volume).

FIG. 17 schematically depicts workpiece assembly 212 after curing andprior to cooling contractible element 242, with pellets 236 havingexpanded to push against the contractible elements and surfaces ofassembly 212. During and/or prior to curing of workpiece 205,contractible elements 242 can help push expandable pellets 232 into edgeportions, corners, crevices, pockets, and/or narrow portions of volume224. Contractible elements 242 can be configured to expand during thecuring process, or to begin the curing process at their maximal volume,and then contract after the curing process is complete.

FIG. 18 schematically depicts assembly 212 after curing and aftercontractible element 242 has been reduced in volume (e.g., by coolingand/or deflation). Where contractible element 242 is configured toshrink upon cooling, reducing contractible element 242 in volume caninclude cooling the contractible element with a cooling mechanism (e.g.,one or more fans, water chillers, thermoelectric coolers, etc.).Additionally, or alternatively, contractible element 242 can be allowedto cool naturally toward an ambient temperature. As shown in FIG. 18when shrunken, contractible element 242 can fit loosely within volume224 and/or within the plurality of expanded pellets 236 within volume224, and therefore can be extracted from the constraining container 220relatively easily. Typically, contractible element 242 can be removedfrom container 220< and then the tightly packed expanded pellets 236 areremoved. Removing contractible element 242 leaves yet additional spacewithin volume 224, allowing expanded pellets 236 to move more easily andtherefore to be extracted more easily. Alternatively, contractibleelement 242 and expanded pellets 236 can be removed substantiallysimultaneously, or at least some of the pellets can be removed prior toremoval of the contractible element.

In one aspect, external surfaces of contractible element 242 can beconfigured to stick to expanded pellets 236, such that at least some ofthe expanded pellets 236 are removed from volume 224 along with thecontractible element 242 when the contractible element is removed fromthe constraining container 220. For example, surfaces of contractibleelement 242 can include one or more adhesives, high-friction materials,and/or shapes (e.g., ribbing, indentations, and/or relief patterns)configured to capture one or more expanded pellets 236 such that thecaptured pellets can be more readily removed along with the contractibleelement.

Contractible element 242 can include a solid material configured tocontract when cooled from a heated curing temperature of the curingprocess to an ambient or other temperature lower than the curingtemperature. For example, contractible element 242 can include a metalmaterial. In examples in which at least a portion of constrainingcontainer 220 is elongate, for example in order to accommodate anelongate workpiece, such as an uncured aircraft stiffener workpiece,contractible element 242 can comprise a metal rod positionedlongitudinally within volume 224. Where contractible element 242 issubstantially elongate, the cross-sectional shape of the element can becircular. Additionally, or alternatively, contractible element 242 canhave a different cross-sectional shape, such as oblong, square,triangular, hexagonal, polygonal, and/or irregular. Contractible element242 can be a solid and/or hollow object having a spherical, planar,rectangular, conical, and/or irregular shape.

In an alternative aspect, contractible element 242 can comprise abladder 244 (see FIG. 19). Bladder 244 (also referred to as a balloon)can contain a fluid 246, and can be configured to be used in conjunctionwith expandable pellets 232 in the manner described in the associateddescription above.

Fluid 246 can be confined within one or more bladder walls 248comprising an elastic material (e.g., silicone). The constituents offluid 246 and/or bladder walls 248 can be selected to achieve a desiredvolume and/or pressure of bladder 244 at the temperatures associatedwith curing workpiece 205. Fluid 246 can include, without limitation, aliquid, a gas, a super-critical fluid, or a combination thereof. Wherecontractible element 242 includes a bladder, the bladder can be a sealedbladder and fluid 246 contained therein can be configured to expand andcontract as the fluid within expands and contracts, and in particularbladder 244 and fluid 246 can be configured as a contractible elementsuch that the volume of bladder 244 can be reduced when cooled from thecuring temperature to a lower or ambient temperature.

Alternatively, or in addition, the volume of bladder 244 can be reducedby deflation, such as by puncturing one or more walls 248 of bladder244. In examples in which bladder 244 is deflated by puncturing, thebladder can be disposable, and/or can be repairable for reuse.

Alternatively, or in addition, bladder 244 can be configured to beopened to allow an input or egress of fluid 246, to control the volumeof the bladder. For example, bladder 244 can be coupled to a valve 249that can be configured to be closed to retain fluid 246 within thebladder, opened to allow fluid 246 to exit the bladder, or alternativelyvalve 249 can be configured to be in fluid communication with a source250 of fluid 246, such that additional fluid 246 can be added to bladder244 to achieve a desired bladder volume.

Fluid source 250 can include a reservoir for holding fluid 246 and/or apump for pumping fluid 246 into or out of bladder 244. Adjusting thevolume and/or pressure of fluid 246 within bladder 244 allows thepressure exerted by the bladder on adjacent portions of expandableelement 218, expandable pellets 232, and/or assembly 212 to beselectively adjusted without directly adjusting the temperature of thebladder or the fluid within the bladder.

In one aspect, bladder 244 and/or valve 249 can be configured to not bein fluid communication with source 250 during curing of workpiece 205.For example, bladder 244 can be at least partially filled with fluid 246and then disconnected from fluid source 250 prior to inserting thebladder into volume 224 of container 220. Alternatively, oradditionally, bladder 244 can be inserted into volume 224 and at leastpartially filled with fluid 246 while inside the container, and thendisconnected from fluid source 250 prior to curing workpiece 205.

Although useful as a contractible element, the combination of fluidsource 250, valve 249, and bladder 244 can alternatively or additionallybe used to supplement the pressure applied by expandable element 218.That is, fluid 246 can be added to bladder 244 to enlarge bladder 244and apply additional pressure to workpiece 205. Alternatively, or inaddition, bladder 244 can be disposed between expandable element 218 andworkpiece 205, so that the pressure applied by expandable element 218 isapplied more uniformly to workpiece 205.

Bladder 244 can alternatively or additionally be at least partiallyfilled with a foaming agent configured to expand when heated or releasea quantity of gas having sufficient pressure and/or volume to apply apredetermined pressure to inner surface 226 of constraining container220. Accordingly, bladder 244 can be an alternative example of anexpandable element 218.

2. Additional Pellets

Expandable pellets 232 can be combined with a plurality of additionalpellets that, while also expandable, are configured to expand to alesser degree than expandable pellets 232 when heated to a predeterminedtemperature. Expanding less than expandable pellets 232 when heated tothe predetermined temperature can include substantially not expandingwhen heated to the predetermined temperature (e.g., having substantiallythe same volume at the predetermined temperature as at an ambienttemperature lower than the predetermined temperature.) For example, theadditional pellets can have a coefficient of thermal expansion that isless than ten percent of a coefficient of thermal expansion of theexpandable pellets. A mixture of expandable pellets 232 and suchadditional pellets can facilitate the extraction of expanded pellets 236from constraining container 220.

Alternatively, or in addition, expandable pellets 232 can be combinedwith a plurality of additional pellets configured to shrink when cooledfrom the heated curing temperature toward an ambient temperature. Suchcontractible additional pellets are an example of contractible element242, described above.

3. Pellet Extraction Systems

In those cases where the geometry of constraining container 220 canhinder the removal of expanded pellets 236, a variety of approaches canbe employed to facilitate the extraction of expanded pellets 236 fromvolume 224 of container 220, such as using magnetically attractablebeads in cooperation with a magnetically attractable bead extractionsystem. For example, magnetically attractable beads can include steelbeads, and a complementary magnetically attractable element to aid inremoving the magnetically attractable beads can be a permanent magnet.

Alternatively or in addition, a pressurized fluid extraction system canbe employed to extract expanded pellets 236 from container 220. Apressurized fluid extraction system can include a pressurized fluidsource configured to force a pressurized fluid into container 220 toflush expanded pellets 236 out of the interior of constraining container220. The pressurized fluid can comprise any suitable fluid, such as aninert gas, air, and/or any other suitable gas or liquid.

Alternatively or in addition, a vacuum extraction system can beconfigured to extract expanded pellets 236 from volume 224 ofconstraining container 220. A vacuum extraction system can include avacuum source configured to create a region of low gas pressure and/orpartial vacuum adjacent to pull expanded pellets 236 out of constrainingcontainer 220, and further include a receptacle configured to collectthe expanded pellets.

4. Bagged Expandable Pellets

Adding the expandable element 218 to the internal volume 224 of theconstraining container 220 can include adding a plurality ofthermally-expandable pellets 232 to the internal volume of theconstraining container while the pellets are retained within a flexiblebag.

In this aspect, expandable pellets 232 can be prepackaged into portionsby placing a predetermined amount of expandable pellets 232 within aflexible sack or bag 251, where the bags are configured to be addeddirectly to internal volume 224 of constraining container 220.Typically, the composition of bag 251 is selected so that the bag canwithstand the conditions under which workpiece 205 is cured, as well aswithstanding the internal pressures created upon expansion of pellets232.

The principle advantages offered by bagged expandable pellets includethe substantially greater simplicity of handling the pellets, bothbefore and after expansion. Bagged expandable pellets 232 can be morereadily portioned out at a job site, and can be more easily transportedto where at the job site they are needed. Additionally, the amount offoaming agent included in the expandable pellets or the pre-impregnationof expandable pellets can be metered to a certain dosage, which whencombined with metering of bag contents with a known amount of expandablepellets can facilitate calculations for an appropriate amount ofexpandable pellets 232, and thereby enhance the production rate ofworkpiece assembly curing.

Addition of expandable pellets to a constraining container can includeadding one or more bags of expandable pellets to the constrainingcontainer before container 220 is sealed and the workpiece cured. Then,after curing is complete, the resulting expanded pellets 236 can bereadily removed from container 220 by removing the now expanded bags andtheir contents from the container.

FIG. 20 schematically depicts a plurality of bag assemblies 252,comprising bags 251 that are at least partially filled with expandablepellets 232. Bag assemblies 252 are shown disposed within constrainingcontainer 220 with assembly 212. A variety of bags 251 can be used toconstruct bag assemblies 252. Such bags 251 can be configured to containexpandable pellets 232 and/or another type of expandable element 218,and are additionally configured to permit the expandable pellets toexpand (e.g., to apply a predetermined pressure to interior surfaces ofan internal volume containing the bag, as described above). Bag 251 canbe selected so that it simply provides sufficient internal volume thatthe full expansion of expandable pellets 232 within bag 251 isaccommodated. Alternatively, or in addition, the material of bag 251 canbe selected to be partly or wholly expandable (stretchable) itself, sothat the expansion of expandable pellets 232 can be accommodated by bag251.

FIG. 21 depicts the constraining container 220 of FIG. 20 afterworkpiece 205 has been cured. Volume 224 of constraining container 220is substantially filled with bag assemblies 253, which comprise bags 251that now enclose expanded pellets 236. The expanded pellets 236 can beextracted from volume 224 of constraining container 220 by opening thecontainer and removing expanded bag assemblies 253 from the containerwhile some or all of the expanded pellets 236 remain contained in bag251. Where expanded bag assemblies 253 are removed from container 220intact, with expanded pellets 236 remaining confined within bag 251, noclean-up of spilled or lost pellets is required. However, expandedpellets 236 can alternatively be removed from constraining container 220by opening one or more bag assemblies 253 and extracting the expandedpellets 236 from bag 251. In order to facilitate the removal of expandedpellets 236 from bag 251, the walls of bag 251 can include a hatch,door, zipper, and/or any other closure assembly configured to be openedand closed again without damaging bag 251.

F. Heating Procedures and Materials

The various manufacturing processes for manufacturing a compositeworkpiece as described herein include heating, both to effectively curethe engineered composite workpiece, and, where the expandable element isconfigured to undergo expansion upon a predetermined increase intemperature, to expand the expandable element so as to create adequatepressure to cure the engineered composite workpiece.

Heating the thermally-activated expandable element to at least thepredetermined temperature within the internal volume 224 of theconstraining container 220 can include externally heating theconstraining container. The uncured composite workpiece can besatisfactorily cured without the requirement of an autoclave,simplifying the curing process, as any method of heating conventionallyused in manufacturing can be used to heat container 220 and itscontents.

Constraining container 220, or one of its component parts, can bevibrated during the curing process, in order to help settle the contentsof the constraining container and apply pressure to workpiece 205 moreuniformly.

Although the presently described processes do not require an autoclaveto apply pressure to the composite workpiece, container 220 canoptionally be heated to a desired temperature using an industrial oven,kiln, or furnace that is relies upon combustion, electrical resistance,induction, solar, or geothermal heating, among others. Other heattransfer techniques, such as circulating heated fluid around thecontainer, can also be useful for the present processes.

The disclosed processes can be particularly useful when incorporatingheating materials within the constraining container 220 itself, as doingso can eliminate the requirement for external heating of constrainingcontainer 220. In this aspect, curing the composite material can includeadding a heat-generating substance 254 to the internal volume 224 of theconstraining container 220 with the thermally-activated expandableelement; and heating the thermally-activated expandable element to atleast the predetermined temperature using the heat-generating substance.The heat-generating substance 254 can be added to container 220 asdiscrete or distinct packages of material, or as pellets or particulatesthat can be mixed with a thermally-activated expandable element 218. Inparticular, where thermally-activated expandable element 218 includesexpandable pellets 232, the heat-generating substance 254 can be addedto container 220 in the form of similarly-shaped and sized pellets thatcan be mixed with pellets 232.

Heat-generating substance 254 can be selected to heat thethermally-activated expandable element to at least the predeterminedtemperature by undergoing an exothermic (heat-producing) change ofstate, or undergoing an exothermic (heat-producing) chemical reaction,as will be discussed below.

1. Exothermic Chemical Reaction

Where a heat-generating substance is selected to generate heat via anexothermic reaction, the substance typically includes the reactantsrequired for the desired chemical reaction. The chemical reaction itselfis typically energetically favored, and one or more of the reactants cantherefore be isolated from the others, to prevent the reaction fromproceeding until heating is desirable. The reaction is typicallysubstantially self-sustaining, so that upon initiation by intermixingthe necessary reactants, the reaction will proceed until complete.

A variety of appropriate heat-generating chemical reactions can beutilized for the purposes of heating the expandable element describedherein, including the following exemplary illustrations.

One reaction typically used for flameless heating is the reaction ofcalcium oxide (or quicklime) with water. Calcium oxide reacts vigorouslywith water to produce heat, and this reaction is already used forself-heating food containers. Dry calcium oxide and water are combined,typically by piercing a wall or membrane between compartments enclosingthe reactants. The exothermic reaction then proceeds, with an enthalpyof reaction of −64.8 kJ/mol:CaO(s)+H₂O(aq)→Ca(OH)₂(s) ΔH=−64.8 kJ/mol

The combination of one mole of calcium oxide with one mole of waterwould therefore yield −64.8 kJ of energy in the form of heat. Using themolecular weights for calcium oxide (56.1 grams/mol) and water (18.0grams/mol), we can calculate that 74.1 grams of combined reactants wouldbe needed to generate 64.8 kJ of heat energy. If the reaction werecarried out by adding excess water to the calcium oxide, the water wouldact as both reactant and solvent, and in addition serve as a heattransfer medium. That is, the reaction would heat the water, and theheated water could be used to heat expandable element 218.

For the purposes of illustration, a heat-generating packet that employsthe calcium oxide-water reaction to generate heat might include 56.1grams of dry calcium oxide, with 268 grams of water (or 268 mL of water)in a separate chamber. When combined, for example by piercing themembrane between the two chambers, the reaction will consume 18.0 gramsof water, and the remaining 250 grams of water will be heated by the64.8 kJ of energy released by the reaction.

The specific heat of liquid water is relatively high, at 4,182 J/K/Kg(Joules/degree Kelvin/Kg), but the addition of 64.8 kJ to 250 grams ofwater will raise the temperature of the 250 grams of water by 62 degreesCelsius. That is, if the water was initially at 20 degrees Celsius, andassuming no loss of heat to the environment, the water would be heatedto approximately 82 degrees Celsius, or 180 degrees Fahrenheit. Inaddition to its heating capabilities, this reaction has the additionaladvantage of using inexpensive reactants. Further, although calciumoxide can be an irritant to skin, it is generally safe, and is sometimeseven used as a dietary supplement.

An alternative heat-generating reaction is the reaction of magnesiummetal and water to generate magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. Thisreaction has been employed by the U.S. military to heat military rationsusing flameless ration heaters (or FRHs). The reaction is slow, however,and FRHs include metallic iron particles and sodium chloride toaccelerate the reaction. An exemplary FRH utilizes 7.5 grams of powderedmagnesium-iron alloy and 0.5 grams of salt, with the addition of 30 mLof water, to heat a 230 gram meal packet by 56 degrees Celsius (100degrees Fahrenheit) in approximately 10 minutes. This corresponds to arelease of approximately 50 kJoules of heat energy at about 80 watts.

Another alternative heat-generating reaction is the oxidation of ironwith oxygen. Although the rusting of iron is typically not associatedwith heat generation, this reaction is used by some portable handwarmers. The sealed packets include moist, finely-divided ironparticles, salt, and optionally appropriate catalysts for the reaction.The packets can additionally include activated charcoal and vermiculite,to help dilute the iron powder to slow the reaction, as well asdiffusing the generated heat. When the sealed packet is opened, exposingthe contents to oxygen, the packet can generate significant warmth forup to several hours, for some hand warmers up to 57 degrees Celsius (135degrees Fahrenheit).

Yet another alternative heat-generating reaction is the reaction ofcopper sulfate with powdered zinc, with an enthalpy of reaction ofapproximately −200 kJ/mol.

As discussed above expandable element 218 can have the form of aplurality of foamable pellets configured to foam when heated to at leasta predetermined foaming temperature. In one aspect, the foamable pelletsare configured so that the foaming process is itself exothermic, suchthat the foaming process contributes to the heating of the expandableelement 218 as well as workpiece 205. In this aspect, an additionalheating heat-generating substance may not be needed. Alternatively, thefoamable pellets can be configured so that the foaming process isendothermic (heat-absorbing). A mixture of exothermic and endothermicfoamable pellets may be used in order to fine-tune the temperaturesreached within container 220.

Where heat-generating substance 254 relies upon an exothermic chemicalreaction, the substance can be added to the constraining container 220as individual packets or packages 256 of the reactants, which can beactivated by mixing or combining two or more components of the packet.Packets 256 can be layered with the expandable element 218, arranged tobe adjacent the composite workpiece 205, or dispersed within volume 224of container 220, as shown in FIG. 22.

Alternatively, or in addition, heat-generating substance 254 can includea reactant that reacts with an additional component, such as oxygen orwater, to produce heat. In this aspect the heat-generating substance canbe opened or unsealed and then added with the expanding element 218 tocontainer 220. The heat-generating substance 254 can be added tocontainer 220 in the form of pellets 258 which can be similar to, ordistinct from, expandable pellets 232 in size and shape, as depicted inFIG. 23.

If desired or needed, any required additional component for theheat-generating reaction can also be added to container 220, for exampleby the addition of a reagent solution containing the additionalcomponent to volume 224 of container 220, either before or after thecontainer is sealed. In one aspect, the heat-generating substanceundergoes an exothermic reaction with water, and water is added tocontainer 220 prior to sealing the container. In another aspect, asolution containing a necessary reactant is pumped into container 220after it is sealed, to initiate the heat-generating reaction. In yetanother aspect, where the heat-generating substance reacts with oxygen,container 220 can incorporate sufficient ventilation that oxygen canreach the heat-generating substance while container 220 is closed,without compromising the integrity of container 220 to contain thepressures created by expandable element 218.

2. Exothermic Change of Phase

An alternative class of heat-generating substances suitable for thepresently disclosed processes may not require a chemical reaction, butinstead generates heat by undergoing a physical change of state.Depending on the thermodynamics of the specific molecular system, asolid undergoing dissolution in a solvent can release a significantamount of heat. Conversely, crystallization of a solid from a saturatedsolution can release useful heat energy.

For example, the dissolution of anhydrous calcium chloride is anexothermic process, and this system has been used in portable heatingpads. Typically, an amount of anhydrous calcium chloride and a supply ofwater are contained in separate compartments, and the heating pad isactivated by mixing the contents of the separate compartments, forexample by squeezing the heating pad to rupture a membrane disposedbetween the compartments.

Similar to the illustrative calcium oxide-water based heating packetabove, an illustrative heat-generating packet utilizing the dissolutionof calcium chloride to generate heat might include 55.5 grams of drycalcium chloride (0.5 mol), separated from 200 mL of water in a separatechamber. The enthalpy of dissolution for calcium chloride is −82.8kJ/mol, and the molecular weight of calcium chloride is 110.98 g/mol.When allowed to combine, for example by piercing a membrane between thetwo chambers, the calcium chloride will dissolve in the water, and thedissolution will generate 41.4 kJ of heat energy. Assuming idealconditions where all of that energy is used to heat the 200 mL of water,and that the water is initially at 20 degrees Celsius, and the waterwill reach a temperature of 70 degrees Celsius (158 degrees Fahrenheit).

A common alternative heating system includes a packet containing asupersaturated aqueous solution of sodium acetate. Crystallization ofsodium acetate trihydrate can be initiated by flexing a small disc ofnotched ferrous metal within the solution, which creates a nucleationsite for the sodium acetate. Crystallization then occurs very rapidly,and generates significant amounts of heat.

The sodium acetate crystallization system offers an additional advantagethat it is completely reusable, as placing the packet containing thesodium acetate crystals in boiling water redissolves the sodium acetatein the water contained in the package. Permitting the packet to cool toroom temperature recreates a supersaturated solution, and the packet canbe used for heating again.

Where the heat-generating substance relies upon a change in phase togenerate heat, the heat-generating substance can be added as anindividual packet or packages of the phase-changing component, which canbe activated by mixing or combining two or more components of thepacket, or otherwise triggering a change in phase. The packets can belayered with the expandable element 218, arranged to be adjacent thecomposite workpiece 205, or dispersed throughout volume 224 of container220, as shown for packets 256 in FIG. 22.

G. Illustrative Method of Manufacturing a Composite Workpiece

This section describes steps of an illustrative method of manufacturinga composite workpiece, as shown in flowchart 300 of FIG. 24. Expandableelement 218 and/or associated systems can be utilized in the methodsteps described below. Where appropriate, reference can be made tocomponents and systems that can be used in carrying out each step. Thesereferences are for illustration, and are not intended to limit thepossible ways of carrying out any particular step of the method.

FIG. 24 is a flowchart illustrating steps performed in an illustrativemethod. Based on the present disclosure, it should be understood thatadditional steps can be performed, without departing from the presentclaims. Although various steps of flowchart 300 are described below anddepicted in FIG. 24, the steps need not necessarily all be performed,and in some cases can be performed simultaneously or in a differentorder than the order shown.

The present illustrative method can include adding an expandable elementto an internal volume of a constraining container proximate to anuncured composite workpiece supported on a rigid form, the unexpandedelement being configured to expand when a predetermined change isproduced in an attribute of the unexpanded element, as set out at step302 of flowchart 300. The method can further include expanding theexpandable element by producing the predetermined change in theattribute of the unexpanded element, so that an expansion of theexpandable element applies a resulting pressure to the workpiecesupported on the rigid form within the internal volume, as set out atstep 304 of flowchart 300. The method can further include curing thecomposite workpiece while the resulting pressure is applied to theworkpiece supported on the rigid form, as set out at step 306 offlowchart 300. Optionally, the illustrative method can further includeremoving the expanded element from the internal volume of theconstraining container, as set out at step 308 of flowchart 300.

H. Illustrative Method of Manufacturing a Composite Workpiece

This section describes steps of an illustrative method of manufacturinga composite workpiece, as shown in flowchart 320 of FIG. 25. Expandableelement 218 and/or associated systems can be utilized in the methodsteps described below. Where appropriate, reference can be made tocomponents and systems that can be used in carrying out each step. Thesereferences are for illustration, and are not intended to limit thepossible ways of carrying out any particular step of the method.

FIG. 25 is a flowchart illustrating steps performed in an illustrativemethod. Based on the present disclosure, it should be understood thatadditional steps can be performed, without departing from the presentclaims. Although various steps of flowchart 320 are described below anddepicted in FIG. 25, the steps need not necessarily all be performed,and in some cases can be performed simultaneously or in a differentorder than the order shown.

The illustrative method of flowchart 320 can include adding athermally-activated expandable element to an internal volume of aconstraining container housing an uncured composite component supportedon a rigid form, as set out at step 322. The method can further includeexpanding the thermally-activated expandable element by heating thethermally-activated expandable element to at least a predeterminedtemperature, as set out at step 324 of flowchart 320. The method canfurther include curing the uncured composite component within theinternal volume of the constraining container while the expanded elementapplies pressure to the uncured component, as set out at step 326 offlowchart 320.

I. Illustrative Combinations and Additional Examples

This section describes additional aspects and features of expandabletooling, presented without limitation as a series of paragraphs, some orall of which can be alphanumerically designated for clarity andefficiency. Each of these paragraphs can be combined with one or moreother paragraphs, and/or with disclosure from elsewhere in thisapplication in any suitable manner. Some of the paragraphs belowexpressly refer to and further limit other paragraphs, providing withoutlimitation examples of some of the suitable combinations.

A1. A method of manufacturing a composite workpiece, comprising addingan expandable element to an internal volume of a constraining containerproximate to an uncured composite workpiece supported on a rigid form,the unexpanded element being configured to expand when a predeterminedchange is produced in an attribute of the unexpanded element; expandingthe expandable element by producing the predetermined change in theattribute of the unexpanded element, so that an expansion of theexpandable element applies a resulting pressure to the workpiecesupported on the rigid form within the internal volume; and curing thecomposite workpiece while the resulting pressure is applied to theworkpiece supported on the rigid form.A2. The method of paragraph A1, where adding the expandable element tothe internal volume of the constraining container includes adding athermally-activated expandable element to the internal volume of theconstraining container, where the thermally-activated expandable elementis configured to expand when the temperature of the element is raised toat least a predetermined temperature.A3. The method of paragraph A2, where heating the thermally-activatedexpandable element to at least the predetermined temperature within theinternal volume of the constraining container includes externallyheating the constraining container.A4. The method of paragraph A2, further comprising adding aheat-generating substance to the internal volume of the constrainingcontainer with the thermally-activated expandable element; and heatingthe thermally-activated expandable element to at least the predeterminedtemperature using the heat-generating substance.A5. The method of paragraph A4, where the heat-generating substance isselected to heat the thermally-activated expandable element to at leastthe predetermined temperature by undergoing an exothermic change ofstate, or undergoing an exothermic chemical reaction.A6. The method of paragraph A2, where adding the thermally-activatedexpandable element includes adding a plurality of expandable pellets,where the expandable pellets are configured to undergo volumetricexpansion when heated to at least the predetermined temperature.A7. The method of paragraph A6, further comprising adding a lubricatingagent to the expandable pellets to decrease adhesion between pelletsbefore and/or after volumetric expansion of the expandable pellets.A8. The method of paragraph A2, where adding the thermally-activatedexpandable element includes adding a plurality of expandable pelletshaving surface regions of increased crystallinity in order to decreaseadhesion between pellets before and/or after volumetric expansion of theexpandable pellets.A9. The method of paragraph A1, further comprising inserting acontractible element into the internal volume of the constrainingcontainer with the expandable element, the contractible element beingconfigured to volumetrically contract when a predetermined change isproduced in an attribute of the contractible element.A10. The method of paragraph A1, further comprising inserting aplurality of volumetrically invariant adjuncts into the internal volumeof the constraining container with the expandable element.A11. The method of paragraph A10, where inserting the plurality ofvolumetrically invariant adjuncts into the internal volume of theconstraining container includes combining a plurality of volumetricallyinvariant beads or rods with the expandable element.A12. The method of paragraph A1, further comprising applying a removablebarrier film to an outer surface of the uncured composite workpiecebefore adding the expandable element to the internal volume of theconstraining container.B1. A method of manufacturing a composite component, comprising adding athermally-activated expandable element to an internal volume of aconstraining container housing an uncured composite component supportedon a rigid form; expanding the thermally-activated expandable element byheating the thermally-activated expandable element to at least apredetermined temperature; and curing the composite workpiece within theinternal volume of the constraining container while the expanded elementapplies pressure to the workpiece to form the component.B2. The method of paragraph B1, further comprising inserting acontractible element into the internal volume of the constrainingcontainer with the thermally-activated expandable element, thecontractible element being configured to volumetrically contract when apredetermined change is produced in an attribute of the contractibleelement; effecting the predetermined change in the attribute of thecontractible element; and removing the contracted element and theexpanded element from the internal volume of the constraining container.B3. The method of paragraph B2, where expanding the thermally-activatedexpandable element by heating the thermally-activated expandable elementto at least a predetermined temperature includes producing apredetermined pressure against the uncured composite workpiece when thethermally-activated expandable element is heated to at least thepredetermined temperature.B4. The method of paragraph B2, where adding the thermally-activatedexpandable element to the internal volume of the constraining containerincludes adding a plurality of thermally-expandable pellets to theinternal volume of the constraining container while the pellets areretained within a flexible bag.B5. The method of paragraph B2, where heating the thermally-activatedexpandable element includes heating the thermally-activated expandableelement with a heat-generating substance added to the internal volume ofthe constraining container.B6. The method of paragraph B5, where heating the thermally-activatedexpandable element includes heating the thermally-activated expandableelement with a heat-generating substance while the heat-generatingsubstance is undergoing an exothermic change of state, or undergoing anexothermic chemical reaction.B7. The method of paragraph B1, where the composite component is acomposite aircraft component.B8. The method of paragraph B1, where the step of curing the compositeworkpiece within the internal volume of the constraining container iscarried out in the absence of an autoclave.

Advantages, Features, and Benefits

The different examples of the expandable tooling systems and methodsdescribed herein provide several advantages over known solutions forapplying positive pressure to a composite workpiece assembly whilecuring the assembly. For example, illustrative examples described hereinallow tooling that is adaptive to various shapes, and typically does notneed to be tailored to specific dimensions and/or geometry of thecomposite workpiece assembly. Furthermore, illustrative embodiments andexamples described herein allow for manufacturing composite parts havinga complicated shape, without manufacturing custom tooling having acorresponding complicated shape. Accordingly, the high cost ofmanufacturing the complicated tooling is saved.

Additionally, and among other benefits, illustrative examples describedherein allow tooling that is tailorable to the pressure and temperaturesassociated with curing a specific composite workpiece assembly.

Additionally, and among other benefits, illustrative examples describedherein allow tooling that is environmentally preferred. For example,expandable foam pellets can comprise a recyclable material such aspolyethylene terephthalate (PET), a material from renewable resources,and/or a biodegradable material such as polylactide (PLA).

Additionally, and among other benefits, the expandable tooling systemsand methods described herein facilitates the “out-of-autoclave” curingof composite workpieces. Appropriate constraining containers can befabricated on site for conducting the present methods at a desiredlocation, saving on the cost of providing an industrial autoclave, thecost of transporting workpieces to and from the industrial autoclave,and preventing the types of bottlenecks in production flow that cantypically result when production resources are limited in number butwidely required.

No known system or device can perform these functions. However, not allexamples described herein provide the same advantages or the same degreeof advantage.

CONCLUSION

The disclosure set forth above may encompass multiple distinct exampleswith independent utility. Although each of these has been disclosed inits preferred form(s), the specific examples thereof as disclosed andillustrated herein are not to be considered in a limiting sense, becausenumerous variations are possible. To the extent that section headingsare used within this disclosure, such headings are for organizationalpurposes only. The subject matter of the disclosure includes all noveland nonobvious combinations and subcombinations of the various elements,features, functions, and/or properties disclosed herein. The followingclaims particularly point out certain combinations and subcombinationsregarded as novel and nonobvious. Other combinations and subcombinationsof features, functions, elements, and/or properties may be claimed inapplications claiming priority from this or a related application. Suchclaims, whether broader, narrower, equal, or different in scope to theoriginal claims, also are regarded as included within the subject matterof the present disclosure.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of manufacturing a composite workpiece,comprising: adding foamable pellets to an internal volume of aconstraining container proximate to an uncured composite workpiecesupported on a rigid form, the foamable pellets being configured toexpand when a predetermined change is produced in an attribute of thefoamable pellets; expanding the foamable pellets by producing thepredetermined change in the attribute of the foamable pellets, so thatan expansion of the foamable pellets applies a resulting pressure to theworkpiece supported on the rigid form within the internal volume; andcuring the composite workpiece while the resulting pressure is appliedto the workpiece supported on the rigid form.
 2. The method of claim 1,wherein adding the foamable pellets to the internal volume of theconstraining container includes adding thermally-activated foamablepellets to the internal volume of the constraining container, where thethermally-activated foamable pellets are configured to expand when atemperature of the thermally-activated foamable pellets is raised to atleast a predetermined temperature.
 3. The method of claim 2, furthercomprising heating the thermally-activated foamable pellets to at leastthe predetermined temperature within the internal volume of theconstraining container, wherein heating includes externally heating theconstraining container.
 4. The method of claim 2, further comprisingadding a heat-generating substance to the internal volume of theconstraining container with the thermally-activated foamable pellets;and heating the thermally-activated foamable pellets to at least thepredetermined temperature using the heat-generating substance.
 5. Themethod of claim 4, wherein the heat-generating substance is selected toheat the thermally-activated foamable pellets to at least thepredetermined temperature by undergoing an exothermic change of state,or undergoing an exothermic chemical reaction.
 6. The method of claim 2,further comprising adding a lubricating agent to the thermally-activatedfoamable pellets to decrease adhesion between pellets before and/orafter expanding the foamable pellets.
 7. The method of claim 2, whereinadding the thermally-activated foamable pellets includes adding aplurality of foamable pellets having surface regions of increasedcrystallinity in order to decrease adhesion between pellets beforeand/or after expanding the foamable pellets.
 8. The method of claim 1,further comprising: inserting a contractible element into the internalvolume of the constraining container with the foamable pellets, thecontractible element being configured to volumetrically contract when apredetermined change is produced in an attribute of the contractibleelement.
 9. The method of claim 1, further comprising inserting aplurality of volumetrically invariant adjuncts into the internal volumeof the constraining container with the foamable pellets.
 10. The methodof claim 9, wherein inserting the plurality of volumetrically invariantadjuncts into the internal volume of the constraining container includescombining a plurality of volumetrically invariant beads or rods with thefoamable pellets.
 11. The method of claim 1, further comprising applyinga removable barrier film to an outer surface of the uncured compositeworkpiece before adding the foamable pellets to the internal volume ofthe constraining container.
 12. The method of claim 2, furthercomprising heating the thermally-activated foamable pellets to at leastthe predetermined temperature.
 13. The method of claim 8, furthercomprising: effecting the predetermined change in the attribute of thecontractible element; and removing the contracted element and thefoamable pellets from the internal volume of the constraining container.14. The method of claim 1, wherein expanding the foamable pelletsincludes producing a predetermined pressure against the uncuredcomposite workpiece when the predetermined change is produced in theattribute of the foamable pellets.
 15. The method of claim 1, whereinadding foamable pellets includes adding a plurality of the foamablepellets to the internal volume of the constraining container while theplurality of the foamable pellets are retained within a flexible bag.16. The method of claim 1, wherein the composite workpiece is acomposite aircraft component.
 17. The method of claim 1, wherein curingthe composite workpiece is carried out in the absence of an autoclave.18. The method of claim 1, wherein adding foamable pellets includesadding foamable pellets comprising a thermoplastic material.
 19. Themethod of claim 18, wherein adding foamable pellets comprising athermoplastic material includes adding foamable pellets treated with ablowing agent.
 20. The method of claim 18, wherein expanding thefoamable pellets includes heating the foamable pellets above a glasstransition temperature thereof.